To our spiritual ancestors, life revolved around the stars, the moon, and the sun. Throughout Europe (and much of the world) early peoples built monuments of stone, astronomical machines with which they could measure the year. Some of these neolithic monuments were complex marvels of early architecture, like the standing stones of Stonehenge. Others are little more than a single, upright stone that can be aligned with a point on the distant horizon.
With their feet planted in the same spot, watching from behind the standing stone, our ancestors watched the sun rise in the east, welcoming each morning's light. As the seasons began to slowly pass, the sun would move farther south each day until, in the middle of winter, the sun would stop in its most southern point. We call this day the Winter Solstice, as the word solstice literally means "sun stand still." On this day, because of the earth's tilt on its axis, there are fewer hours of sunlight than on any other day. After stopping it's southern journey at this point, the sun slowly begins to creep northward until, in the midst of summer, it reaches its northern-most position: the Summer Solstice. The Summer Solstice marks the day when there are the greatest number of daylight hours in the northern hemisphere.
Midway between these two extremes, are two days when the hours of light and darkness are equal. One of these days falls in the spring, the other in the fall. We call each of these days an equinox, meaning "equal night," as there are the same number of hours of daylight and darkness on these days.
To the early pagan peoples, these were magickal days. On the solstice, the sun stopped its journey and stood still; on the equinox, the powers of darkness and light were equal. These four days divided the year into four equal parts or Quarters. By dividing the year into understandable portions, our ancestors could begin to explore it. Slowly, they realized that certain plants grew at certain times, others were ready to harvest in particular portions of the year, and even the animals gave birth, mated, and lived their lives around this celestial cycle.
Each of the Quarters of the year has a Sabbat attached to it. We know the Winter Solstice as Yule, the Spring Equinox as Ostara, the Summer Solstice as Midsummer, and the Autumnal Equinox as Mabon. Witches, however, generally celebrate eight Sabbats. So, how did these come about?
In the modern age, we generally consider the Summer Solstice to be the first day of summer. However, this is the day with the longest daylight of the year, marking the height, or mid-point of summer. From our pagan traditions we know this day as Midsummer, a perspective much more in-tune with the celestial cycle than our modern calendars. So when does summer begin if you view the world from a celestial-oriented perspective?
Not only do witches celebrate the Quarters of the year as Sabbats, but we also mark the Cross-Quarters, the days that fall at the mid-point between the solstices and equinoxes. These Sabbats are Imbolc (February 2nd), Beltane (May 1st), Lughnasad (or "Lamas" on August 1st), and Samhain (October 31st).
If you look at our modern calendar, you'll notice that these days don't fall exactly between the Quarters, but are off by a few days. Maria Kay Simms argues in her book, "The Circle of the Cosmic Muse," that due to changes in our calendar, we're celebrating the date these days fall on, rather than their actual astronomical occurance. "If the equinoxes and solstices are considered to be significant energy points, then there is all the more reasons why the Greater Sabbats, should be celebrated at the actual astronomical cross-quarters, which are 15° of the fixed signs..." This would place the cross-quarter Sabbats at approximately February 4 (Imbolc), May 5 (Beltane), August 7 (Lughnasad or Lammas), and November 7 (Samhain).
The cross-quarter Sabbats are also known as the "Greater Sabbats." If we consider the astronomical dates for these Sabbats, it puts them exactly between the solstices and equinoxes.
Now, if we take the name Midsummer literally, this would suggest that the beginning of summer in the pagan world fell exactly between Ostara and Midsummer, or Beltane. And sure enough, Beltane is a celebration of fertility (much in the spirit of the beginning of summer). Likewise, Imbolc could be considered the beginning of spring (it is a Sabbat where we honor the stirring of life and the lengthening of daylight), and Lughnasad (the harvest) the beginning of fall and the harvest season.
This would make Samhain the beginning of Winter. To the Celts, it was also the beginning of the new year. Why celebrate the birth of a new year at the beginning of the darkest portion of the solar year?
As many of early peoples did, the Celts followed a lunar calendar. If they observed traditions similar to the Romans, they marked the lunar month with the new moon, the darkest time of the lunar cycle. It only makes sense that they would mark the birth of a new year at the beginning of the darkest point of the solar calendar. In this way, they would maintain consistency between their solar and lunar observances.
Considering the Sabbats this way, it also begins to clarify the term "Greater Sabbat." The Cross-Quarter Sabbats were the beginnings of the seasons, very magickal times to the pagan peoples. The equinoxes and solstices only marked their mid-points; the cross-quarters of the year celebrated their birth.
The term pagan literally means "country people." This insinuated a connection with the earth, but as our Sabbats show us, this extended to the sky as well. Much more than simple dates of celebration, the Sabbats were magickal days that connected our spiritual ancestors to the energy of the sky and earth. And as we begin to rediscover and honor the old ways, they can begin to connect us as well.